Physical Literacy

This paper is designed to make a particular contribution to the debate regarding the way western patriarchal culture has been instrumental in creating a situation in which women are devalued and viewed in many ways as inferior to men. Women are predominantly cast in the role of objects, very often at the behest of men. The views of de Beauvoir (1949) and Young (1990) are considered briefly and their somewhat dualistic leanings questioned. A monist perspective is then introduced as a backdrop to look again at the situation in which women find themselves. Paying particular attention to the significance of the embodied dimension in the life experiences of women, the paper moves to outline a goal to which women can aspire and ways in which this end can be worked towards. Central to this discussion will be the concept of physical literacy(1) and problems and opportunities in respect of developing this attribute in women.

At root the paper is based on a view that attitudes to a person’s embodiment in western culture have played a significant part in robbing the individual of her/his uniqueness. The capacity and confidence to capitalise on our embodied potential is the foundation for the development of self in all its diversity. Lack of confidence or inhibitions concerning our embodied potential shut off many avenues and opportunities in life. As argued earlier by Whitehead (2005b) embodiment plays an important part in promoting the realisation of self as a being-in-the-world. (2) Our embodied dimension has an axial role to play in our interaction with the world, in our coming to know the world and in so doing coming to know ourself more fully. In others words our embodiment is a vehicle for our self realisation. Where culture labels an individual’s embodied presence as inferior or unacceptably different from the norm, the effect is to deprive the individual of a key constituent of her/his self confidence and self respect and to shut off a range of potential projects. In so doing culture stifles individuality and inhibits freedom.

The development and maintenance of physical literacy aims to support every individual in having confidence in their embodied capacities. This is the key that unlocks a dimension of human potential, thus affording the opportunity to interact with the world with confidence. For cultural mores/pressures to inculcate a negative attitude to one’s embodiment is to seriously damage self-respect and self esteem and to devalue the rich variations of the human condition.

The way that western culture has confined and diminished the status of women is eloquently described by Simone de Beauvoir in The Second Sex (1949), and although her reflections are set in France in the mid twentieth century there is much that is relevant in the twenty-first century. While de Beauvoir’s treatise does not address specific consideration of the attribute I have identified as physical literacy, her focus on the devaluing of women through their being designated in patriarchal culture primarily as an object, clearly supports the potential power of attitudes to the embodied dimension to lower the status of woman. Iris Young in Throwing Like a Girl (1990) picks up from de Beauvoir and moves the spotlight onto western attitudes to woman’s embodied capacities, or physical competence and confidence, in other words their physical literacy.

Both de Beauvoir and Young present a range of descriptions and explanations that illuminate the situation of women as a second-class citizens in western culture. However although in general their work is wholly convincing, much of their underlying rationale is based on what seems to be a dualistic position. For example both explain the situation from the perspective of ‘transcendence’ and ‘immanence’. Men are described as characteristically demonstrating ‘transcendence’ or ‘a sense of openness to future projects as an existence for-itself,’(Weiss 1999 p44) while women are seen to live a life of ‘immanence’, that is ‘a sense of rootedness to the past stemming from one’s objectification as a being-for-others.’ (Weiss 1999 p44)

‘Transcendence’ implies that our mental capacities are the key vehicle in effecting human potential, while ‘immanence’ implies that the individual is somehow not able to direct her/his life-pattern, is not forward looking or pro-active and exists very much as an object in the form of being-for-others. Hence the impression given is that humans are comprised of two potentially separable aspects – mind and body, and that one or the other of this dichotomy can take precedence over the other, and hold sway in existence.(3) In addition ‘transcendence’ seems, characteristically, to go beyond the here and now and to indicate freedom to capitalise on the opportunities presented by the world in which we live. In contrast ‘immanence’ implies that there is a tie to the here and now, and to the limitations that our culture has created.

From a monist perspective, however, the concept of ‘transcendence’ is meaningless without involvement of the whole person as an embodied being in the world. In this sense there will always be elements of ‘immanence’ in effecting ‘transcendence’. A person will always be an embodied action-taker, will always initiate action from a present built on the past, will always act from a platform of an established relationship with the world. Rather than using the term ‘transcendence’ with its implication of capitalising on mental capacities over other human attributes, a better description of what might be seen as characteristic of the life-style of men in western culture could allude to their living a freely chosen project-active life-style, in dynamic relation to the world. While this life-style will draw on cognitive dimensions of the individual, such as perception of opportunities, forward planning and imagination, few projects will be without significant involvement of the embodied dimension. All attributes and dimensions of the individual will be called on, inter alia, intellectual, emotional, sensory and embodied. From a monist perspective the person always acts holistically, drawing on clusters of attributes that address the initiative at hand. Indeed it could be argued that there is no clear cut divide between what have been described as ‘transcendence’ and ‘immanence’.

In support of this position Merleau-Ponty (1964) uses the term ‘transcendence’ in a holist context when he refers to the embodiment as the transcendent subject of perception. In fact he refers to embodiment as transcendent. This supports the view of the inherent embodied nature of the project-active human; the presentation of ‘transcendence’ as the demonstration of embodied, freely motivated, intentional activity. Indeed De Beauvoir herself writes (p41/42) ‘…every biological fact implies transcendence, that every function involves a project, something to be done’. From the most obvious embodied action to involvement in projects where embodiment is apparently less crucial, "something to be done" must involve drawing on the whole range of human capacities.’

There would seem to be further support for a monist approach that sees our embodiment as irrefutably interwoven with all that we do, in Merleau-Ponty’s (1964) consideration of embodiment as instrumental in all our projects. The ways that embodiment is instrumental in goals or initiatives can be most clearly seen when a project depends to a greater, rather than a lesser, extent on embodied capacities, such as developing a fitness level to achieve a particularly ambitious climb or the motile co-ordination to master a musical instrument. It would not seem as any lesser way of life to adopt a project that focuses very much on the capacities of our embodied dimension (4) This observation therefore calls into question the view that particular focus on our embodiment, is necessarily an inferior way of life, as implied to some extent by de Beauvoir.

A description of the different ways in which life is characteristically played out by women and men in today’s western culture would, from a monist perspective, be more acceptable if it focused on their different opportunities to act freely, rather than being based concepts that are closely tied to the ‘body’ and ‘mind’ dichotomy. ‘Transcendence’ and ‘immanence’ are, therefore, not seen as appropriate terms and it could be better to see existence as being realised on a continuum from ‘living a freely chosen project-active life-style in dynamic relation to the world,’ to ‘living with minimal freedom to effect projects and with scant opportunity to develop a dynamic relation to the world’. However life is lived, existence will be played out in active relation to the world with our embodied dimension as an integral and indispensable aspect of our personhood.(5)

In considering the place of women in western culture the concepts of ‘transcendence’ and ‘immanence’ will be replaced by the terms ‘project-determining’ and ‘project-prescribed’. All projects can be seen to lie along this continuum, and all will involve individuals in all, or very many, of their dimensions. In a culture such as ours, where we exist in a context of an interplay of demands, pressures and expectations resulting from a life in the midst of numerous institutional structures, it is unlikely that anyone will live a wholly project-determining life-style. Life will comprise a mix of projects from along the whole spectrum. However it is surely the case that those with the opportunity to effect more project-determined initiatives will be more likely to realise their full potential in all its richness and uniqueness. Those individuals for whom projects are, in the majority, prescribed, will be less likely to realise the full range of their capacities. Where actions are predominantly effected at the behest of others there will be little opportunity for the individual to develop a sense of self, and few openings for them to use their own initiative and so celebrate their individuality.

The pictures painted by both de Beauvoir and Young illustrate a range of different ways in which patriarchal society puts pressure on women to such an extent that much of their lives comprise projects prescribed by others. These projects include the expectation that women should confine their contribution to society and the family to child care, should have as a priority that they ‘deck themselves out’ and comport themselves predominantly to please men, and should limit themselves to tasks that are less demanding in respect of certain aspects of their personhood, for example those incorporating their intellectual and embodied capacities. The extent to which women lives their lives with fewer opportunities to determine their own projects must surely lead to a situation in which their self respect and self confidence is diminished. It seems the case that in western culture a woman realises less of her human potential and could rightly be described as less fulfilled, a second class citizen in relation to men or a member of the ‘Second Sex’.

Such are the expectations and the insidious power of patriarchal culture that women themselves perpetuate the situation outlined above. Woman as mother of a future woman reinforces levels of aspiration, behaviour patterns and appearances in her daughters that are clearly within the established norms of society. Woman as mother is frighteningly powerful in sex-stereotyping her girl children. She grooms them for their future project-prescribed life-style, while at the same time guiding her sons into project-determining ways of behaviour/habits . In adolescence and adulthood women are no better friends to other women. In a sense they compete to ‘dance to’ the expectations of society and particularly of men, and are quick to be critical of each other if they ‘step outside’ what is seen to be ‘acceptable’.

Among the outcomes of this situation are two unfortunate consequences for women. While very different they both arise from the context described above. One outcome is that women are so habituated into the role that society has defined for them, that they are totally oblivious of the fact that they are not determining their own projects. Women accept as the norm the expectations of others, both men and women, and act out their lives willingly, as prescribed by society. The second outcome is where a woman has aspirations to a project-determining lifestyle possibly incorporating behaviours and comportments that are ‘unusual’ or ‘less acceptable’, but encounters significant resistance to her initiatives. While developments in the twenty-first century are beginning to ease the path of these women, there are still few who have the confidence, determination and capacity to rebuff criticism and thus empower themselves to direct their own path, notwithstanding all the barriers they meet.

Cockburn identifies what she labels the ‘femininity deficit’ as being the difference between the feminine ideals of our patriarchal society and the extent to which an individual matches up to these. Society pressurises women to diminish the deficit by striving to live up to expectations. The more women express their freedom to flout these expectations and thus widen the gap, the more likely it is that they will be seen as odd or deviant. Treading this path will need considerable self-confidence to negotiate effective relationships with others.

It might be valuable here to make a short detour to highlight some background areas that could be seen to be responsible for the position in which women find themselves. The historical development of women’s place in western culture is comprehensively covered by de Beauvoir with her investigation into circumstances that have resulted in the current situation. This covers the succeeding layers of patriarchal dominance through times when life was nomadic and periods when communities became predominantly tillers of the soil. In both these situations the wife lived under the husband’s roof and her role was primarily confined to child care and other menial work such caring for livestock. In classical times laws came into force that decreed that women had no right to private property and in the years of the Middle Ages the ideology of the Christian church underwrote women as lesser beings, by its assertion that women were created for men. Women were firmly relegated to a subordinate role, both debarring them from taking up positions of authority in the ministry, and casting them as a ‘danger’ to men in their sexual attractiveness. Running through de Beauvoir’s work is the explication that throughout history women have been, in numerous ways, the property of men. Men have been in control and have designated women as inferior. Not only has society and religion seen fit to endorse this perception but philosophers have added their support to the dominance of men. For example de Beauvior, (pps 15, 16 and 729) cites Aristotle who wrote ‘The female is a female by virtue of a certain lack of qualities, we should regard the female nature as afflicted with a natural defectiveness’, St Thomas who claims that woman is ‘an imperfect man, an incidental being’, and Kierkegaard who shows a degree of sympathy in reflecting ‘What a misfortune to be a woman!’.

As societies continued to develop laws came into force that gave men authority over many aspects of life and marriage, for example the affording of the franchise only to men. These laws have, over the last century, been systematically questioned and modified. However there remains a powerful patriarchal establishment in western culture in which, in many situations, women still have to fight to achieve equal rights.

Michael Foucault charts the changing role of women in Western Culture somewhat differently but arrives at a similar place to De Beauvior. Foucault discerns that in less developed societies the relationship between men and women was one of ‘Alliance’. Each individual being equally valued for his/her various/different contributions to existence and procreation. As societies became institutionalised he describes a process whereby male hegemony develops and where women were seen more as ‘property’ than partners. At the same time questions were being asked about the fundamental differences between man and women, with an effort to describe the essential essence of each sex. Arising from this the notion of sexuality came into being with men designating women as primarily objects for sex. (6)

Two quotes from de Beauvoir put forward the view that the position of women is not of their own making. She writes (p295) ‘One is not born, but rather becomes, a women. No biological, psychological, or economic fate determines the figure that the human female presents in society; it is civilisation as a whole that produces this creature,’ and again (p 163) ‘It is not the inferiority of women that has caused their historical insignificance: it is rather their historical insignificance that has doomed them to inferiority’.

This is the world into which women are born. A world of difference. A world in which men all too readily prescribe projects for women, motivated in part, by the need to re-assert their dominance and project-determining capacities.

For those who perpetuate the designation of women as inferior there might be at least two obvious justifications, firstly the fact that women are often of slighter build and with less muscular power that men, and secondly that the proper and primary role of women is to carry and care for children. To counter the first justification, it is without doubt an over generalisation, there being women who are as physically robust as men. Indeed in some third world cultures it is the women who carry out the heavy manual work. Furthermore brute force as exhibited by our embodied dimension would seem very narrow grounds on which to base an assessment of human status, given the rich range of productive capacities with which we are endowed. The rebuttal of the second justification is less straightforward as child bearing is indeed the privilege afforded to women. In the twenty-first century when medicine has shown that two of the most influential periods of a child’s life are the months in the womb and the first months of life, both of which are in the care of the mother, it is most surprising that so little respect has been shown to women in relation to their responsibilities for the next generation. It is almost as if women have ‘served their purpose’ in their task of child rearing and are, thereafter, expendable. The patriarchal view seems to be that women are there for man’s pleasure in sex and in their capacity to provide him with children. On these grounds men have seemed able to subordinate women, even to the extent that women accept as their lot, the much more restricted life-style or project-prescribed existence, that leaves men free to be the initiators in many walks of life.

There are arguments that justify woman’s position as secondary by explaining that, because of her biology she is ‘closer to nature’. Furthermore she is said to be tied to her embodiment and unable to dissociate herself from this dimension of her personhood.(7) In addition it is propounded that she is ‘out of control’ of aspects of her embodiment, things are said to happen to her embodiment in ways that things do not ‘happen’ to men’s embodied dimension. In answer to these claims it has to be re-iterated that every human is a being-in-the-world. Every human is dependent on an embodied relationship with the world for the creation of her/his personhood. We are all ‘close to nature’. We are all manifest in embodied form and live our lives through this dimension of ourselves. In relation to ‘things happening’ to our embodiment, taking a broad view, ‘things happen’ to both male and female embodiment. It is true that women have the unique capacity, to some extent beyond their control, to bear children. However it seems extraordinary to penalise women for the endowment of the capacity to bear children, this being of quintessential importance to the furtherance of the species. For the miracle of her part in procreation to be significantly responsible for assigning women to a life of limited opportunities, is nothing but grossly unfair.

Fundamental to the position being taken here is the commitment to every individual being given the opportunity to realise their potential through having the freedom to live a project-determining life-style. All should be able to express their personal characteristics (within that which is morally acceptable to society) and make their own life-choices. Every individual should be respected and treated with equal value in the context of an appreciation that each person is unique. Differences should be celebrated and valued in the variety of contributions each can make to society. Individual men and women bring both similar and different attributes to community life, all of which contribute to a rich interpersonal shared existence.

Based on these refutations of significant differences it is unacceptable that, in western culture, women are very often seen as inferior, being generally less capable in respect of, for example, their intellectual capacities and their embodied capacities. All too often women are pressured to view themselves important only in so far as they can please men. These pressures are relentless, come from numerous sources and are often more covert than overt. Popular discourse presumes the prescribed status of women, all forms of the media endorse this as does the hidden curriculum in schools and many institutions and the often unquestioned sex-stereotyping inherent in family life. The energies of women are directed into looking and behaving in ways that men would seem to demand. Their embodied dimension is central to this, in that a great deal of attention is paid to their figure and looks, and to adopting only those embodied capacities that are deemed attractive to men. In many cases a woman can only see herself as a ‘would-be-desirable’ individual for the opposite sex, and all too often ‘dances to the tune’ created by society so that she seldom really expresses the full scope of her potential.

The goal should be that women should be encouraged to appreciate their potential and have the confidence to fashion their life according to their own inclination. They should exercise their project-determining capacities and develop self esteem and self respect in celebrating their particular abilities. Women should be able to see themselves as more than just a partner for men, they should have the confidence to develop a number of persona.(8) De Beauvoir (1949 p 740) advocates a similar strategy in writing ‘To emancipate woman is to refuse to confine her to the relations she bears to man, not to deny them to her; let her have her independent existence and she will continue none the less to exist for him also: mutually recognising each other as subject’. Importantly they should be aware of the insidious pressures that cast them as the Second Sex and challenge this prejudice. It has to be accepted that this is asking a great deal of a woman. Re-negotiating her position in society to develop alternative personae is no easy task, it is a struggle of her will against the huge weight of expectations of society. To some extent each individual is involved in this interplay of forces that Foucault (in Burkitt 1999) calls ‘agonism’, however for a woman, intent on being herself – it becomes a daunting battle.

The ideas discussed so far in this paper have referred to women’s overall position in society, however I would now like to turn specifically to the role that their embodiment plays in their life. It has already been intimated that this is an important dimension of their femininity in references to their being considered in some cases as an ‘object’ to be possessed, and as a sex symbol. In fact many see the embodied dimension as very significant in the sex-stereotyping pressures in society. Kirk and Tinning (1990 p5) assert that the physical dimension of our being is ‘infused with social and cultural significance’. Bourdieu (cited in Brownell 1995 p11) uses the term ‘habitus’ to refer to ‘a system of predispositions, a habitual way of being, that becomes inculcated in the body, as a result of the objective conditions of daily existence’. Habitus reinforces the social order, making embodiment a key aspect among female characteristics expected in western society. Burkitt (1999 p92) debates Bulter’s position and articulates her view that ‘Power operates through the discursive system of heterosexual hegemony to materialise gendered bodies as either masculine or feminine and, in the process, produce a domain of excluded and sanctioned sexualities.’ There is a sense that our embodied dimension carries the imprint of history and culture in the way it learns to comport itself. Butler goes on to argue that there are ‘no primary essences of masculinity and femininity lodged in the body, which give rise to gender identity’, rather these are acquired as individuals learn to take their place in the accepted social order.

Women’s embodiment in the guise of their habitus underwrites much that is expected of them. As indicated earlier women can be unaware that their persona is being tightly managed in our patriarchal society. Indeed habitus itself can create obstacles for social change. Women all too readily seem to accept that they must fashion every aspect of the presentation and use of their embodiment in line with male expectations.

Patriarchal society would seem to have a number of effects on how women view their embodiment. Firstly there is the notion of the ideal female embodiment to which they often feel obliged to aspire, secondly, as a corollary of the first, women can become obsessed with viewing their embodiment as an object. Thirdly it is made clear to women that their embodied abilities in physical activity are not only non-feminine but also fall short of what can be achieved by men.

This last is supported by Young (1990 p269) who asserts that ‘women in sexist society are physically handicapped’. Young’s description of typical ways that girls and women use their embodied capacities is revealing. She observes that women tend not to use the whole range of their movement potential and limit their use of space to that which immediately surrounds them. Women tend to observe far space as a place in which others can take action rather than where they can be active. Women seem to protect their personal space and feel uncomfortable if this space is ‘invaded’. Furthermore women tend to perceive movement as something for others to look at rather than action to achieve a specific end.(9) There is a sense in which a woman sees her embodiment as a statement of ‘I am’ rather than an expression of an ‘I can’. Above all, Young contends, women feel that they are constantly being observed, are subject to the gaze of others. They sense, rightly or wrongly, that they are being viewed critically by others. Characteristically women are often self-deprecating about their movement ability and appear lacking in confidence in their movement capacities. It is sadly the case that all too many women have learnt – or been made to expect, that they lack ability in this sphere. Far from saying ‘I can’, it is more likely that they say ‘I can’t’. Their movement is often ‘guarded’, tentative and almost apologetic. It is surely the case that women do have considerable ability in the movement field but are being restricted, indeed handicapped, by limiting themselves in order to comply with the expectations of society.

In the context that the development of our embodied abilities lies at the heart of realising our personhood, both in respect of nurturing a rich relationship with the world and of stimulating many facets of our human potential, this is very concerning. If women are confined by societal attitudes to limit the extent to which they can capitalise one their embodied nature, they are being deprived of developing aspects of their personhood. This view is supported Cockburn (1999 p15) who writes that ‘girls are deprived of the advantages of using their physicality as a medium for identity construction as "….embodiment is a prerequisite for discovering who one is"’. (Arnold cited in McDermott 1996 p 20)’

It is revealing that de Beauvoir senses the importance of the confidence women can develop through capitalising on their embodied dimension. She writes (1949 p357) ‘but if she could assert herself through her body and face the world in some other fashion, this deficiency would be easily compensated for. Let her swim, climb mountain peaks, pilot an aeroplane, battle against the elements, take risks, go out for adventure, and she will not feel before the world that timidity which I have referred to’.

The development of the concept of physical literacy was primarily motivated to move away from a situation in movement work, in some schools, where many pupils, girls and boys, were feeling they were failing, becoming disillusioned and opting out of this aspect of the curriculum. Physical literacy is a potential all can achieve, at his/her own level, a potential that can enrich lives both through confident participation in physical activity and by developing self confidence and self-esteem. The need to develop physical literacy in girls is particularly important given the pressures they are under and the inhibiting effects these pressures have in respect of their developing physical abilities.

The achievement and maintenance of physical literacy in girls and women will not be easily achieved and will involve a number of groups of people. As indicated in Whitehead (2006) human life span can be seen to fall into six stages. These are Pre-school, Foundation and Primary School, Secondary School, Immediate post-school, Adulthood and Older age. At each stage there will be a group of significant others on who’s shoulders will rest the responsibility to nurture physical literacy of women against a backdrop of scepticism and even opposition.

Critical in the Pre-school stage will be the attitude of parents to the motor development of their girl baby and toddler. It goes almost without saying that these very young people should be given every opportunity to explore and experiment with their developing motor capacities in a wide range of stimulating environments. Parents and carers need to encourage and reward this activity and avoid an over protective approach without compromising safety. There should be no difference in the way girls and boys are treated at this stage. At Foundation and Primary School a significant amount of responsibility rests on school staff. Sex stereotyping in respect of motor capacities should be avoided at all costs and girls alongside boys should develop a wide range of motor competencies and learn to manage their embodiment in the establishment of basic motor patterns and fundamental movement skills. Girls particularly should be encouraged to involve the entirety of their embodiment in movements, to move widely in their own space and to accept as natural travelling out into general space. In all these situations girls should receive recognition and praise for their efforts from teachers, parents and peers. Furthermore girls at this stage should interact with as wide a variety of environments as do boys. There being no significant difference in physique between the average girl and boy at this stage, there are no grounds for differential treatment. There will, however, be grounds for differential treatment in respect of individual differences and herein lies a crucial consideration. All young people will exhibit different motor potential but all should receive support, praise and encouragement which is absolutely essential in laying the foundation for confidence in their motor capacities and the nurturing of general self respect and self esteem. In all these endeavours teachers and other activity leaders need to work hand in hand with parents to ensure that a common message is reaching the young people. Above all girls should not feel over exposed, scrutinised as to what they look like or be concerned about their embodiment as object.

Nurturing physical literacy at Foundation and Primary School stage will be challenging in that those involved must work to change attitudes and break with accepted societal norms. However the task in the Secondary Schools, with their responsibility for girls and young women from eleven to eighteen years of age is very likely to be more difficult. At this stage girls develop physically into young women and become very aware of their changing embodied form. In addition they become acutely conscious both of how they compare with other girls and of the way others are regarding them.(10) They are subject to comment from peers, both male and female, and of adults. Much research has been conducted into the experiences of girls at this stage with respect to their participation in physical education. Pugsey et al (1996) conducted a small scale piece of research into the folklore surrounding girls’ move from Primary to Secondary School. They found that attitudes to embodiment featured significantly in the stories girls related and used this finding to assert that ‘…children’s experiences of school, and more centrally the transition to secondary school, can be seen from a body perspective’.(p143) They describe with alarming clarity, the role of the school in developing attitudes to embodiment:-

Their view that school is centrally involved in the production of attitudes to girls’ embodied dimension points to the power that these institutions have in fulfilling cultural expectations.(11) While it is the responsibility of the Head and all the staff to counter this narrow stereotyped view, particular onus rests with the physical education teacher in her or his interaction with all young people in their lessons. The approach proposed for the Primary School should be maintained with all young people being given equal opportunities. The task of nurturing physical literacy in all will be very challenging both in respect of having to manage the attitudes of the young adolescents to each other, and in the context of needing to respond appropriately to each child as an individual. The latter demands that teachers know their pupils well and are skilful enough to plan lessons to cater for all. In the wide range of writing about the problem of motivating all young people to develop positive attitudes to physical activity, the plea for much more individualised teaching has been a made repeatedly(12). While this is essential for all young people it is particularly important for young girls who have learnt that they are less gifted in this field and are quick to be self critical and to opt out in situations where they feel ‘out of their depth’ and humiliated. Tasks and approaches should be devised that are inclusive and give all the opportunity to succeed. In many cases girls are more sensitive to failure and criticism. This is endorsed by Rigers et al (2005) in a small scale piece of research into the relationship between perceptions of athletic competence and fear of negative evaluation. They found that there was a general trend towards adolescent girls having lower perceptions of their athletic competence and greater fears of negative evaluation. Many girls do not find physical education an easy experience. In a world where they are expected to be feminine and to match up to an ideal model of femininity the experiences of physical education are uncomfortable. Simply participating in physical activity – seen as not only a male preserve but also a place where women are less able – is problematic. Wearing less than becoming clothes; being required to display their embodiment and exposing the fact that they do not match up to the ideal model; exhibiting behaviours that are unfeminine such as getting sweaty and developing muscles, all add up to a situation many would wish to avoid. The situation is at its worst in mixed physical education. It is not unusual for girls to find the situation intolerable and to develop coping strategies to avoid physical education. This may result in being absent form the lesson, being ‘unable’ to take part, or taking part, but simply ‘going through the motions’, half heartedly.

It is essential that teachers realise what they are asking of girls, empathise with the experiences these pupils are having and appreciate why there is resistance. Talbot (1993) aptly describes the situation here, and the need for understanding on the part of the teacher in writing ‘If as teachers we fail to recognise the culturally learned ‘millstones’ which children bring with them to their educational experiences, or the ‘millstones’ which we ourselves carry around, it is difficult to see how prejudice and entrenched belief can be confronted and challenged’. (p85)

There is therefore a need for physical education teachers to reassess their teaching to ensure that content and method are such that all can succeed, all can receive positive feedback and all can develop confidence in their embodied abilities. Teaching must be truly inclusive and individualised.

The nature of the work in school that is focused on developing physical literacy should resemble the description so well expressed by Willis (cited in Cockburn 1999 p 52) that the subject should be

As indicated in Whitehead (2005a) the teacher needs to show genuine empathy with all the young people, girls and boys, with whom she or he works. It has to be said that boys who do not match up to society’s expectations with regards to their embodied competence and preferred activities are as prone to humiliation as girls. The request for all teachers to show empathy cannot, however, be realised easily. The reason for this is that physical education teachers have, characteristically, seldom felt the humiliation of persistent failure in the movement field. In addition they identify particularly with those young people who are successful. In some respects it ought to be easier for female teachers to change attitudes to expectations of girls’ abilities as they have themselves, stepped out of line of cultural norms. This is not the case with male physical education teachers who often exhibit many of the male characteristics valued by society, such as a mesomorph physique, strength and athletic success. It would seem that they would find it very hard to empathise with the male pupil who does not match up to society’s model and with female pupils who are timid, self deprecating and physically inhibited by cultural expectations.

Girls need to be helped to appreciate that they can have more than one identity, that there are other acceptable options beyond the models persistently being presented to them, for example, in the media. Girls need to be supported in developing the self-confidence to express alternative aspects of their individuality. It is the case that some girls do ‘brave’ this situation. They do manage to have ‘double identities’, and withstand the criticism they may receive form peers and parents.

In the three stages of achieving and maintaining physical literacy that follow the Secondary School stage:- Immediate post-school, Adulthood and Older age, the creation of opportunities, encouragement, support, imagination and even ingenuity will be needed by all involved, to motivate women and to build their self respect and self-assurance in and via the field of movement. While the development of physical literacy and the resultant growth in overall self-confidence may be harder to achieve in older women, any will be beneficial and certainly well worth the investment of time by all involved.

There seem to be grounds to argue that the development of physical literacy can play a part in the realisation of women as confident, project-determining individuals. Physical literacy can contribute to freeing women to be themselves, equal to, but different from men, and to laying the ground for women to express their individuality and unique nature in ways that can enrich the quality of interpersonal human existence.

The achievement of physical literacy will be harder for women to achieve than for many men on account of the prevailing attitude that tends to limit women in what is judged to be appropriate modes of physical activity, and to view them as less capable in respect of their movement capacities. Women seem to be in a no-win situation. Where they work to realise their potential in this field they can be viewed critically by men and indeed by other women. Where they comply with the expectations of society they can stifle their individuality and potential.

The achievement and maintenance physical literacy needs to be the focus of physical education during the school years and the goal of all who are involved in promoting physical activity before and after compulsory education.(ref Whitehead 2006) Teachers and leaders need to adopt appropriate approaches to working with girls and women. They need to help girls women to focus on the experience and outcomes of ‘doing’, rather than on the experience of being seen or a preoccupation about what they look like. Women must be supported in acquiring embodied images that are not solely dictated by the male ‘gaze’. They need to develop, identify with and live out a range of images, only one of which is tied to the embodiment-as-object.

Developing confidence in their embodied dimension and physical capabilities promotes all round self–respect and self-confidence in women and can encourage them to be more assertive, pro-active and project-determining. They should view their embodiment as a vibrant, versatile and resourceful attribute with which to express themselves. This confidence can literally open up the world for women and challenge the view that it is a man’s world. In fact it is possible that the development of physical literacy in every individual could also serve to underline the similarities, rather than the differences between men and women. While this can be seen as subversive in the context of a patriarchal society, physical literacy is a right of every individual and it is a denial of human freedom to inhibit its development.(11)

The development of physical literacy can make a valuable contribution to the emancipation of women in twenty-first century western culture. It can empower women to be themselves and to celebrate and express their potential.

Margaret Whitehead

March 2007

Acknowledgements. Thanks are due to Claudia Cockburn and Elizabeth Murdoch for their comments on an earlier draft of this paper.