IAPESGW EDMONTON 2005

LEARNING AND LEADERSHIP

The Moving Self

The concept of Physical Literacy and the development of a sense of self.

Dr. Margaret Whitehead

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Four sections:-
  1. The development of the concept
  2. Philosophical background to the concept
  3. Physical Literacy, the development of a sense of self and an ability to interact with others
  4. Implications for content and method in movement work in school

 

The development of the concept:-

The first time that I presented my thoughts on the concept of Physical Literacy was in Melbourne at the IAPESGW Congress in 1993. I followed this up with a paper at our Alexandria Congress in 2001, and so it is apposite that it is here that I can share with you my current thinking.

To date I have drawn up the following definition of Physical Literacy:-

Physical literacy can be described as the ability and motivation to capitalise on our motile potential to make a significant contribution to the quality of life. As humans we all exhibit this potential, however its specific expression will be particular to the culture in which we live and the motile capacities with which we are endowed.

I want to argue that it is a universal concept, but I have to recognise the influence - both of the social practices which surround an individual, and the fact that everyone’s embodiment is different.

An individual who is physically literate moves with poise, economy and confidence in a wide variety of physically challenging situations. Furthermore the individual is perceptive in ‘reading’ all aspects of the physical environment, anticipating movement needs or possibilities and responding appropriately to these, with intelligence and imagination.

I would want to include here not just movement in a PE/Sport/Dance context, but also all movement involved in daily life.

In addition the individual has the ability to identify and articulate the essential qualities that influence the effectiveness of his/her own movement performance, and has an understanding of the principles of embodied health, with respect to basic aspects such as exercise, sleep and nutrition.

Physical literacy, I argue, must incorporate a rational, informed grasp of our human situation.

 

Philosophical background

Studying the work of a range of philosophers, who are principally existentialists and phenomenologists, has supported my work in two ways:-

Firstly in advocating the key role of our embodiment in existence:-

These can been seen to fall into three areas:-

  1. Views opposing Cartesian dualism and supporting a monist approach to human existence
  2. Views advocating our essential nature as embodied in the world
  3. Views concerning the ways that embodied experience provides a foundation for the development and continued exercise of a whole range of our personal capacities

I would like to share a sample of these views with you.

So, firstly in respect to Monism what do these philosophers say?

For human reality, to be is to act ( Sartre 1957 p 476)

Prior to the Cartesian I think, there is an I can (Burkitt 1999 p 74)

It is not ‘I think therefore I am’ but ‘I can therefore I am’

The mind is inherently embodied ( Lakoff and Johnson 199 p 3)

Before you know it, your body makes you human, and sets you on a course in which your human nature is expressed in intentional action and in interaction with others. (Gallagher 2005 p 248)

The concept of a person is logically primitive and is not derived from mind and body. (Strawson quoted in Gill 2000 p 18)

We do not have to struggle with putting mind and body together to create a person.

Each one of us is a person, comprised of inter-dependent and inter-related dimensions and capabilities.

It is no surprise that it is all but impossible to find a way of explaining how body and mind collaborate, because the mind is as it is because it is embodied, and the body is as it is, because it is a dimension of a ‘minded’ person.

Secondly there are their views advocating our essential nature as embodied in the world

This is a key area for Existentialists and Phenomenologists. For these philosophers we are essentially 'beings-in-the-world' We create ourselves from our interaction with the world. The richer this interaction the more fully we will realise our human potential.

A number of philosophers express the notion of our nature as beings-in-the-world succinctly.

For example Burkitt writes (1999 p74) '...prior to thought and representation, then, there is a primordial coexistence between the body and its world, which grounds the possibility of developing conscious awareness and knowledge.',

Lakoff and Johnson (1999 p 566) express the view that ' The environment is not an "other" to us. It is not a collection of things that we encounter. Rather, it is part of our being. It is the locus of our existence and identity. We cannot and do not exist apart from it.'

In support of this position Gill (2000 p97) writes that 'Our body is the entry point into the world, the medium through and in which our reality is constituted. This symbiosis between our bodies and social and physical reality not only overcomes the traditional dichotomy between the knower and the known, but simply does not allow it to arise.'

Similarly Johnson (1987 p207) expresses the view that -'It is a mistake, however, to think of an organism and its environment as two entirely independent and unrelated entities; the organism does not exist as an organism apart from its environment. The environment as a whole is as much a part of the identity of the organism as anything "internal" to the organism.' He goes onto quote Levins and Lewontin who write '... the environment and the organism actively codetermine each other.'

Clark (1997 p98) takes a wide view of existence in the world and alludes to evolution in writing 'Adaptive success finally accrues not to brains but to brain-body coalitions embedded in ecologically realistic environments.'

There are also a number of philosophers who put forward the idea that in interacting with the world it is not always our embodiment that leads the liaison, the world itself can initiate action . With respect to this view Clark (1997 p224) says 'The combination of embodiment and embedding provides for persistent informational and physical couplings between John and his world – couplings that leave much of John’s "knowledge" out in the world and available for retrieval, transformation, and use as and when required.'

The information 'held' by the world is called an affordance by Gibson (quoted in Weiss and Haber 1999 p129) Here it is explained that 'Affordances may be defined...as opportunities for action in the environment of an organism.' and 'that things in our experience are not just neutral lumps to which we cognitively attach meaning. The things we experience "tell us what to do with them."' Johnson (1987 p204) expresses the same idea by saying that '"Things" outside us talk back to us,...'.

Wider (1997 p131) quotes Sartre's view that 'Thus the world from the moment of the upsurge of my For-itself is revealed as the indication of acts to be performed'. while Merleau-Ponty refers to our intimate attachment to the world as the 'intentional arc'.

Weiss and Haber (1999 p111) refer to our being in a state of equilibrium with the world and write 'One's body is simply solicited by the situation to get into equilibrium with it.' and Gill (2000 p52) explains Polanyi's position with respect to tacit knowledge and writes 'tacit knowing is accomplished through what Polanyi calls "indwelling", the process of immersing oneself in the particulars of subsidiary awareness by means of embodied activity until these particulars come together as a meaningful whole in an "integrative act." '

It follows that, the nurturing of all the avenues through which we can interact with the world, will provide the ground for our development. As our embodiment and motility are

key avenues for interaction, fostering this dimension of our personhood will contribute to the depth and breadth of our life experience.

Thirdly, and very significantly with respect to our advocacy of movement work in education, a number of philosophers present a strong case regarding the ways in which embodied experience provides a foundation for the development and continued exercise of a whole range of our personal capacities.

These views cover areas such as perception, emotion, reasoning, conceptual development and cognitive abilities

For example:-

The perceiving mind is the incarnate mind (Merleau Ponty 1962 p 3)

Reason is not disembodied but arises from the nature of our brains, bodies and bodily experience (Lakoff and Johnson 199 p 4)

Mind, body and world thus emerge as equal partners in the construction of robust, flexible behaviours. (Clark 1997 p45)

As Gallagher ( 2005 p 247) says ’…. nothing about human experience remains untouched by human embodiment: from the basic perceptual and emotional processes that are already at work in infancy, to a sophisticated interaction with other people; from the acquisition and creative use of language, to higher cognitive faculties’.

If we focus for a moment on cognitive functions, it is very interesting to see what some of these writers say.

Prior to thought and representation, then, there is a primordial coexistence between the body and its world, which grounds the possibility of developing conscious awareness and knowledge.(Lakoff and Johnson 1999 p566)

Indeed, there is now a large amount of evidence from a variety of studies and disciplines to show that the body, through its motor abilities, its actual movements, and its posture, informs and shapes cognition. (Gallagher 2005 p8)

Cognitive development, it is concluded, cannot be usefully treated in isolation from issues concerning the child's physical embedding in, and interactions with, the world. A better image of child cognition (indeed of all cognition) depicts perception, action and thought as bound together in a variety of complex interpenetrating ways.

(Clark 1877 p36)

Thus the basis of meaning is not to be located in the rules that order cognition, nor in the grammatical structure of linguistic sentences, but the bodily pattern and order of active perceptions. (Burkitt 1999 p 85))

Thinking is consummately wedded to bodily life; indeed it begins in, and with, bodily experience. In the most fundamental sense it is modelled along the living lines of our bodies .(Sheets-Johnstone1994 p 327)

Our embodied dimension is the ongoing axis of thought and knowing. (Gill 2000 p 130)

'...what we call 'mind' only exists because we have bodies that give us the potential to be active and animate within the world, exploring, touching, seeing, hearing, wondering, explaining; and we can only become persons and selves because we are located bodily at a particular place in space and time, in relation to other people and things around us.'(Burkitt 199p 12)

The above are, then, a selection of the views that have motivated me to work to develop a clear case for the importance of movement work in school, and challenged me to define the concept of Physical Literacy as a goal that all can, should and have a right, to achieve.

The second way in which a number of philosophers have supported my study is in answering a whole range of questions which arose as I developed the concept of Physical Literacy. My various articles and papers spell out these questions.

I will look briefly at the solution to two key questions, they are one concerning Universality and the other about the role of Propositional Knowledge.

Firstly universality.

This has been a problematic issue from the start of working on Physical Literacy.

Is physical literacy a universal concept? That is, does it refer to every human, and would the manifestation of physical literacy be the same in whatever period of history or place in the world in which the person lived.

Reading the work of those holding broadly Existential and Phenomenological views, citing the centrality of our embodied nature to human perception, reason , knowledge and emotion, the answer would have to be, that, as humans, we all experience the world from an embodied perspective and that physical literacy would attract one definition. The concept would need to be applicable to all human beings no matter when or where they lived.

However further reading of Burkitt (1999) who comes to the issue from a sociological position, indicates that while he would agree that embodiment and therefore possibly physical literacy, plays a key role in the life of all humans, he argues that the specific role of the embodiment differs markedly depending on the culture within which we live. For example he would put forward the case that C21st physical literacy in England would include the ability firstly to interact with the wide range of artifacts such as cars and computers, which we have created, and secondly to operate effectively in the context of established social practices, including the particular form of inter-personal relationships that are seen to be acceptable in our culture. Burkitt writes (1999 p 25) 'However, as far as human beings are concerned, it is not just the interaction between organism and environment that defines our being, for these 'movements' of life are also interrelated with, and affected by, our history as social and cultural groups.' His book, Bodies of Thought,(1999) is well worth reading and includes some thought provoking sections on attitudes to the body through history. The work of Sheets-Johnstone is also pertinent here.

It would seem that my provisional definition of physical literacy would need to include reference both to common characteristics and to specific culturally grounded characteristics of the concept.

There is of course another aspect of universality that must be taken into consideration, that is the fact that every individual will be differently endowed with respect to physical capacities. I am here referring to those who are physically challenged and to all of us - as we age and become less flexible, less mobile and less physically adept.

Supported by the views of the philosophers I have referred to earlier, it is my view is that Physical Literacy is pertinent to every human, in order to make the most of the opportunities that offer themselves in our environment. We are all similarly embodied and be we young, old, able bodied or physically challenged, we all rely on physical literacy to provide the foundation for a rich and rewarding quality of life. Therefore the concept of Physical Literacy must be all inclusive. All can achieve Physical Literacy in the context of their own motile capacities. To be physically literate means to make the most of one’s embodied nature and to capitalise to the full on this endowment, respecting that it will be particular to each individual.

I would argue that to be fully human we are all reliant on the motile capacities with which we are endowed. These capacities should be nurtured through all phases of our life.

Following from these considerations I included the first paragraph of the definition:-

Physical literacy can be described as the ability and motivation to capitalise on our motile potential to make a significant contribution to the quality of life. As humans we all exhibit this potential, however its specific expression will be particular to the culture in which we live and the motile capacities with which we are endowed.

The second problematic issue relates to the role of propositional knowledge in the concept of Physical Literacy.

How far is it essential to being physically literate to be able to put into words descriptions of our own embodied state?

In some senses I might be tempted to follow the ideas of Polanyi and others who talk a great deal about tacit knowledge, pre-reflective awareness and preconscious motor response of the knowing body. For example Neitzsche (1969 p69) writes, 'Behind your thoughts and feelings, my brother, stands a mighty commander, an unknown sage – he is called self. He lives in your body, he is your body.' and Polanyi referred to in Gill (2000 p 54) argues 'that because tacit knowledge is the anchor or tether for explicit knowing, it necessarily follows that we always know more than we can tell.' The corollary of these views is that motile capacities are pre-conscious and non-conceptual and therefore in order to capitalise on our embodied potential we need to do more than just 'do'. Propositional knowledge from this perspective would not form part of a concept of physical literacy.

 

It is of interest that it was Sartre (1957) who first engaged in serious debate as to different ways in which we can view our embodiment. He asserted that to understand existence we have to appreciate that there are three ways in which we can conceptualise our embodiment. For Sartre we have a body-for self, a body-for-others and a body-for-others-as-perceived-by-the-self. The body-for-self is the mode of our embodiment that enables us to interact with the world on a pre-reflective level and is the fundamental axis of much of our cognitive capacities, not least the development of concepts. The body-for-others is how we are seen by observers and the final perspective is our awareness of how others view our embodiment. This last perspective on our embodiment is the realisation of our being able to take 'an outsiders' view' on this aspect of ourselves. This perspective is the context in which we objectify our own embodiment and use language to describe our use of, our attitude to and the state of our physical body. Sartre actually identifies dangers in objectifying our embodiment, warning that this results in an unnerving personal schism between the lived body and the body as contemplated ‘from a distance’. I sense that he too, would not accept an ability to put into words aspects of our own embodiment as integral to physical literacy.

However, respecting the dangers highlighted by Sartre I have to respect Burkitt's advice that the nature of existence is inescapably related to the culture within we live, it has to be acknowledged that the body-as-object is an established part of contemporary discourse. We are acutely aware of our body-as-object and, in fact, this has made it hard for people to appreciate that there is more to the body than just a machine to be managed. We are undoubtedly locked into a culture in which articulated knowledge of the body is integral to existence. Knowledge and understanding has increased and reference to the body-as-object permeates much of our language.

Sadly, it is the fact that we can and do objectify our embodiment, and this has been the stumbling block for the appreciation of the multi-dimensional role of embodiment in existence. It is the case that this dualist approach and habitual reference to our embodiment only as an object, in the mode of the body-for-others-as perceived-by-the-self, has made acceptance of the approach I and others are taking, almost impossible. Whenever we talk about 'the body' we are in one breath objectifying, mechanising and devaluing this dimension of ourselves - hence my effort to use the word embodiment rather than body. Burkitt has both pessimistic and optimistic views of the situation. Pessimistically he writes (1999 p 146):-

It appears that modernity has created the division between mind and body, cognition and emotion, rationality and irrationality, and that we are forced to jump one way or the other at various times and places.

And so while I do not want to play-up the role of propositional knowledge in a concept of physical literacy, the articulation of this understanding of our body-as-object forms an integral part of contemporary attitudes to physical activity. There is much debate about, for example, the amount of exercise we should take, the nature of the food we should eat and the types of medication we should use.

And so to ignore this aspect of embodied existence, notwithstanding my monist commitment, is out of the question in our culture. This contemporary view is endorsed by aspects of the current National Curriculum in England that require pupils to be able to ‘Select and applying skills, tactics and compositional ideas’ and to ‘Evaluate and improving performance’

This curricular focus would indicate that it is held to be important and valuable to stand back from one's engagement in an activity and reflect on the nature of one's performance. This seems to point to an effort to describe embodied experience in order to enhance or improve it. It is very much our role as teachers to be able to articulate all aspects of movement to guide our pupils. This is surely essential if we are to promote learning. It would follow from this that if we want our pupils to take responsibility for their own learning, both within our lessons and outside the educational setting, we would want them to be able to employ an approach similar to ours. This would enable them to identify why they are more or less successful and to take steps to improve their performance - at whatever level they are working. To be physically literate therefore would need to include reference to a basic ability to appreciate the nature of ones embodied activity, being able to identify aspects that enable a particular end to be achieved and elements that need attention for the movement to be more effective. This might be expressed as an ability to identify the essential qualities that influence the effectiveness of his/her own movement performance.

On the grounds of considerations such as these, I have added the last paragraph to the definition as indicated above.

In addition the individual has the ability to identify the essential qualities that influence the effectiveness of his/her own movement performance and has an understanding of the principles of embodied health with respect to basic aspects such as exercise, sleep and nutrition.

 

This leads me to my third section relating to the role of the embodiment in the development of a sense of self and an ability to interact with others, and how far this should influence the definition of physical literacy and recommendations about how it might be achieved.

The key questions raised here are:-

How does Physical Literacy relate to the sense of self and to the development of a self concept?

and

How does Physical Literacy relate to the ability of the individual to communicate non-verbally and to interact with others?

Sense of self and the self concept

Experience of working with pupils in school as well as our own experience of movement, would seem to indicate that what has been loosely called body awareness together with a realisation of mastery of movement, engenders a heightened awareness of self and the development of a secure confidence in our embodied abilities. We also know that this confidence in embodied abilities very often has a far reaching effect on the individual’s total self esteem and self confidence. There is also some evidence that enhanced mastery, in the physical domain, even if this is at a modest level, can affect performance and achievement in other areas of the curriculum.

Given the views expressed earlier concerning the way in which our embodied influence so much of our functioning as humans, these last findings come as no surprise. Indeed again from experience of working with young people all of us will have witnessed the all round blossoming of an individual as a result of achievement in the physical domain.

From a monist perspective this should come as no surprise, with the holistic nature of all human experiences. And from phenomenological and existentialist perspective the ongoing role of our embodiment in self realisation and the enhancement of life is again not in any way surprising. As a corollary of their view that we create ourselves from our interaction with our surroundings it follows that all those aspects of ourself through which we interact with the world will play an ongoing part in our ongoing creation of ourselves. Our embodiment is demonstrably a key aspect of our personhood through which we interact with the world and in this way it is continuously responsible for re-enforcement and modification of our self concept and our attitudes to ourself.

However until recently there has been little support from philosophers or psychologists for the centrality of embodied nature to the sense of self. The only reference has been to the notion of the ‘mirror image’, which refers to the recognition by a child of about 2 years, of him or herself as a discrete person. The image is, of course, at first purely bodily but the importance of the embodied dimension is left behind as other aspects of the developing child are discussed.

It is therefore exciting to read views of philosophers and psychologists who are intent on stressing the over-riding importance of our embodiment in the realisation and development of a sense of self in the early stages of childhood as well as throughout life.

Gallagher has a great deal to say about the infant’s body image and body schema and how these in their different ways make a significant contribution to the child’s developing realisation of self. He also debates at length the dual experience of the use of the motile capacities of our embodied dimension as providing both a sense of ownership and a sense of agency.

For example Gallagher (2005 p 83) writes:- The first exclusively visual notion of self may be tied to the later mirror stage, or a later form of imitation. However, self recognition in the mirror is only one measure, one aspect of a broader concept of self. The phenomenon of newborn imitation suggests that much earlier there is a primary notion of self, what we might call a proprioceptive self – a sense of self that involves a sense of one’s own motor possibilities, body postures, and body powers, rather than one’s visual features.

Both Burkitt and Gallagher stress the central role played by our embodiment.

in developing a sense of self.

Burkitt (1999 p76) writes:-

The original sense of 'I' is the 'I can', a practical sense of the body's possibilities, and therefore the sense of identity possessed by humans is not based on disembodied thought, nor in early visual representation of the self. Instead, the sense of self we develop is primarily based on the feel we have of our body and the way it connects us to the world.

and Gallagher(2005 p3) says:-

In some fashion, quite obviously, the human person is embodied in human form and matter. The human body, and the way it structures human experience, also shapes the human experience of self, and perhaps the very possibility of developing a sense of self. If the self is anything more than this, it is nonetheless and first of all this, an embodied self.

He goes on to say (p9) that ‘It may even be possible to say that bodily movement, transformed onto the level of action, is the very thing that constitutes the self.

It is very interesting to see that he appreciates the differing attitudes individuals can have of their embodiment.

He writes (p29) Not only do I perceive, I also remember, imagine, conceptualise, study, love, or hate my own body. And he goes on to say(p30) The body image itself can …. at the same time, be both the result of intentional (perceptual, conceptual, and emotional) experiences, and an operative determinant of such experiences. For example, my negative appraisal of a particular part of body may, consciously or unconsciously, enter into my perceptual or emotional experience of the world.

He also writes (p26) Furthermore, it is important to note that our beliefs and attitudes towards our bodies, even if non-conscious, will have an effect on how we perceive our bodies and the bodies of others. In this sense, the body image is not inert or simply an ideational product of cognitive acts; it plays an active role in shaping our perceptions.

With reference to our work he writes (p144) Exercise, dance, and other practices that affect motility and postural schemas can have an effect on the emotive evaluation of one’s own body image. In these studies, subjects who improve in neuromuscular co-ordination, strength, and endurance, or who experience increased co-ordination, balance, agility, and improved posture through exercise, gain a perception of body competence and achieve a higher degree of satisfaction with their own bodies and motor capacities. Thus changes in the control of movement associated with exercise alter the way that subjects emotionally relate to and perceive their bodies. It is not difficult to imagine that such positive effects can change one’s attitudes toward and perception of the surrounding world.

From these views it is not hard to argue that a physically literate individual, endowed with confidence in his/her embodied dimension, will have a clear sense of self as embodied and that this confidence will permeate the individual’s global self confidence. It also underlines the importance of developing a sound attitude to one’s own embodiment, respecting the strengths and weaknesses of this dimension of oneself. Teachers needs to be aware of the sensitivity of pupils’ attitudes to their embodiment in their interaction with pupils and in their oversight of how pupils interact with each other.

 

Communication and Interaction with others

Gallagher (p 208) sums up his views about the role of embodiment in interpersonal relationship succinctly in writing:- The understanding of the other person is primarily neither theoretical nor based on an internal simulation. It is a form of embodied practice.

On what grounds does he claim this?

Two new theories in the realm of neuroscience are cited as seminal in his conclusions. Both are highly complex and need detailed study. The first finding relates to the nature of proprioception. Gallagher describes two aspects of proprioception – the non-conscious physiological information and the pre-reflective performative awareness, and then goes on to explain both the communication between these two elements of proprioception as well as between vision and pre-reflective performative awareness and between sensory systems and the motor system which includes the physiological information.

He calls this intermodal or intra-corporeal communication, and writes (p 75) that: In an intermodal system, proprioception and vision are already in communication with each other.

Gallagher goes on to propose that our intra-corporeal functioning lays the ground for effective inter-corporeal relationships and writes:-

This intermodal intra-corporeal communication, then, is the basis for an inter-corporeal communication and has profound implications for the child’s relations with others (p76)

He further explains that

 

At 5-7 months infants are able to detect correspondences between visual and auditory information that specify the expression of emotions. Importantly, the perception of emotion in the movement of others is a perception of an embodied comportment, rather than a theory or simulation of an emotional state. (p227)

and that

 

On either interpretation, however, the subject seemingly reads off the meaning of the other, not directly from the other’s actions, but from the internal simulation of the subject’s own ‘as if’ actions. This view suggests that the subject who understands the other person is not interacting with the other person so much as interacting with an internally simulated model of himself, pretending to be the other person. In effect, in contrast to the eclipse of second person interaction by third person observation in false belief tests, here second person interaction is reduced to a first person internal activity.(p222)

This leads us to the second neuroscientific theory, that of the incidence of what are called ‘mirror neurons’. Gallagher attributes the ability to read off the meaning of the other’s actions to these ‘mirror neurons’. These neurons create a situation in which viewing and also perhaps hearing another person activates our own embodied systems enabling us to ‘mirror’ the experience of others. He writes:

Many of the same brain areas that are activated when a subject executes a movement are also activated when the subject imagines herself moving. Neuronal patterns responsible for generating a motor image of an action are in large part the same neuronal patterns that are activated in the case of observing action and in performing action.(p50)

and

The proposal is that these operations constitute an internal simulation of another person’s behaviour. Since mirror neurons or shared representations respond both when a particular motor action is performed by the subject and when the subject observes the same goal-directed action performed by another individual, they constitute an intermodal link between the visual perception of action or dynamic expression, and the first person, intrasubjective, proprioceptive sense of one’s own capabilities.(p220)

and again

Since the same mirror neurons fire either when the subject sees a specific action such as grasping or movement of hand to mouth performed by another person or when the subject performs the action herself, observation of another’s actions may activate the body-schematic representation of one’s own limb-action. (p102)

More generally, the brain areas responsible for planning my own action are the same ones activated during the observation, imaginative simulation, or imitation of the action of others. (p128)

He goes on to argue that effective inter-corporeal communication depends on at least three attributes.

  1. an individual’s development of intra-modal communication
  2. the effective working of the mirror neurons
  3. the acuteness of the observers perception of their own embodiment

Building on these views it is clear that our embodiment that is at the heart of this interaction. It is the sight of the other’s embodiment that triggers our mirror neurons and thus connects with the other.

Interestingly he suggests that those who find it difficult to develop inter-personal relationships may lack effective mirror neurons. Referring to these neurons in respect of autism he suggests that:-

Just these kinds of sensory-motor processes have been shown to be important in explaining some basic aspects of social cognition. Here the evidence that a subject’s understanding of another person’s actions and intentions depends to some extent on a mirrored reverberation in the subject’s own motor system is relevant.(p232)

He continues by expressing the view the more we come to know ourselves as embodied, the better we are able to read off nuances of the experiences of others. Again, referring to autism, he writes:-

The neurology of ‘shared representations’ for intersubjective perception (Georgieff and Jeannerod 1998) suggests that problems with our own motor or body-schematic system could significantly interfere with our capacities for understanding others. Accordingly, it is possible that developmental problems involving sensory-motor processes may have an effect on the capabilities that make up primary intersubjectivity, and therefore the autistic child’s ability to understand the actions and intentions of others. (p232)

Not only does the acuteness of our sensitivity to and management of our embodiment affect our sensitivity to and empathy with others, our perception of others can, he proposes, can in a reciprocal way enrich our perception of ourself. He asserts:-

Children do not simply observe others; they are not passive observers. Rather they interact with others, and in doing so they develop further capabilities in the contexts of those interactions .(p228)

Gallagher endorses his view that understanding the other person is primarily a form of embodied practice in writing:-

I want to suggest that these embodied practices constitute our primary access for understanding others , and continue to do so in large measure even after we attain theory of mind abilities.(p224)

and

In effect, this kind of perception-based understanding is a form of ‘body-reading’ rather than mind reading. In seeing the actions and expressive movements of the other person, one already sees their meaning; no inference to a hidden set of mental states… is necessary. (p227)

Following from reading the views above and debate with others I have now added the following paragraph to the definition of the concept:_

A physically literate individual has a well established sense of self as embodied in the world. This together with an articulate interaction with the environment engenders positive self esteem and self confidence. Furthermore, sensitivity to and awareness of our embodied capacities leads to fluent self expression through non-verbal communication and to perceptive and empathetic interaction with others.

I have, I believe, included non-verbal communication prematurely in this paragraph. This aspect of motility further consideration as Gallagher makes a strong case for gesture to be treated somewhat separately from the workings of the body image and body schema, to which he was principally referring in his discussion about inter-corporeal communication.

The importance of embodiment and Physical Literacy

Having worked with all these writers and many more, what I have become convinced of is that our embodied dimension is not an insignificant aspect of our human nature - a mere machine, that can easily be relegated to a position of having little value other than 'housing' our mind - but it is the very fabric out of which life is fashioned.

The quality of life, to which exercise of our embodied dimension contributes, goes way beyond simple absence of disease or the enjoyment of playing sport with others - which is not to deny the benefits of either.

Attention to our embodied dimension is not a disposable added extra to education, not a waste of precious time in school, not a trivial pursuit.

Attention to our embodied dimension is a critical aspect of education to which all are entitled.

I am currently working on two fronts – the philosophical – developing the concept of Physical Literacy and – the practical - applying these ideas to work in school.

Implications for work in school.

What implications do the views I have been outlining have with respect to the practices of movement education, physical education and sport in school?

Critically important seemed to be that every pupil should have a personally rewarding experience that motivates him or her to continue with physical activity after leaving school. All should leave compulsory education with an attitude to physical activity that opens doors.

As reading and writing - what is called literacy - opens innumerable doors in life, and the management of figures - numeracy - is the springboard for a range of opportunities, so all should develop a literacy in movement which motivates them to establish a life-long habit of taking up options in one or more areas of physical activity.

I judged that current practices in physical education and school sport, were not always successful in providing this and so I want to advocate a move from Physical Education or becoming physically educated to a goal of enabling all to achieve physical literacy or become physically literate.

Work in physical education lessons has the overarching goal to produce ‘physically educated’ young people. This would suggest that what is desired is a particular end state, often being the mastery of a prescribed set of skills. These skills are usually realised within a narrowly defined set of activities. The intent and reality of physical education can therefore become to produce able gymnasts, games players, dancers and swimmers. Following from this there is the danger of teachers , teaching, for example, gymnastics or swimming, rather than teaching young people.

With the intent of physical education as the nurturing of physical literacy there would need to be a move away from a prescribed activity-centred performance model, to a person centred participation model. Experience within this aspect of the curriculum would be focused on becoming physically literate, through a realisation of embodiment in its widest experiential sense.

 

The constituents of the definition of physical literacy given above should be addressed with the goal of all young people having the motivation to continue with physical activity – a motivation founded on the enhanced self confidence and self realisation they have experienced in physical activity settings in their childhood and youth.

 

Content will need to

A. enable all to realise motile aspects of physical literacy as indicated above

that would include coverage of, inter alia:-

i) body management itself with only gravity to contend with

ii) moving in different environments

iii) moving in relation to fixed obstacles, manipulating objects during movement, moving in response to moving objects

iii) moving in relation to others

B. include work that helps pupils to understand the nature of movement and its contribution to health

C. be broad to cater for all and be relevant to opportunities for physical activity throughout life

 

Each of the above sections warrants detailed consideration and a group of us are working on this.

For example in relation to A i) we suggest the following attributes that relate to poise, economy and confidence:-

The attention given to the movement attributes signalled in A as well as constituents of B and C above, needs to be planned within a clear structure.

Our current thoughts have resulted in a modular structure for work in school for children aged 3 to 11 years. Modules would comprise approximately six sessions. We anticipate 6 modules in a year, working, developmentally, within the following titles.

Body management

Manipulating objects

Confidence in the Outdoors

Moving with Others

My Movement

Exploring Movement across the Curriculum

Planning my own module.

These are being designed not only to cover the range of movement capacities mentioned above, but also to embrace the use of language, working with others, creativity, self assessment, decision making and issues concerned with health and well being. It is planned that the modules will give clear guidance without being narrowly prescriptive. The range of physical activity contexts in which the modules could be delivered will be proposed.

The raison d’etre of the outline is not to develop proficiency in specific physical activities but to foster the development of a basic grasp of a wide range of movement capacities, an appreciation of the significance of movement in many avenues of life and a motivation to accept the exciting and rewarding challenges that taking part in physical activity can provide.

While the content and the organisation of the content is of key importance nothing will be gained, Physical Literacy will not be developed unless the teaching methods used and the teacher approach adopted are sensitive to the needs of the embodied pupils with whom they are working.

I cannot stress too much the integral nature of their embodiment to children, and the enormous amount of care we need to take in asking them to exercise this most personal aspect of themselves in so public a forum.

I would argue that while the capacity to find physical activity profoundly rewarding is common to all, attention directed to this dimension of an individual has the potential to be experienced as embarrassing and humiliating.

Methods will need to:-

The teacher will need to be

The teacher is patient, caring and empathetic, but is also challenging, demanding and sets high standards.

Overall work in the physical area must be carried out in lessons where enjoyment comes from success and from the actual experience of mastery, maybe at a modest level. The sheer joy of successfully managing one's embodied dimension is hugely rewarding. It is an experience open to all. Progress and achievement are available to all, at every level. The development of self-confidence and self-respect are palpable in such lessons. These sessions do not encourage truancy but promote participation.

To conclude.

Activity centred on our embodied dimension is a powerful holistic experience, taking us back to our roots.

How right Sheets-Johnstone (2005 p 254) is, to write:-

A living body is too alive with knowledge, with affect, with nonverbal understandings and capabilities. It is too alive to itself, to the world, and to a growing repertoire of powers. She then argues against those who say ‘It must indeed be shut up’.

No, we will not shut it up.

Developing Physical Literacy is a crucial aspect of education, and some would advocate that there should be life-long opportunity for this element of education. The goal of movement work in school must be to develop the physical literacy of all young people.

We are as we are, because we are embodied, and to respect this human characteristic in all young people is a right for every pupil.

 

M.E.Whitehead August 2005

Website www.physical-literacy.org.uk

 

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