How does the concept of Physical Literacy affect what is and might be the practice of Physical Education?
Dominic Haydn-Davies
Abstract
This paper investigates the impact of a Physical Education (PE) approach based on the concept of Physical Literacy (PL). Using Whiteheads (2001) definition of PL, the paper looks at how this philosophical viewpoint can be used in a practical PE setting.
The Qualifications and Curriculum Authority (QCA, 2002) identification of high quality PE outcomes corresponds, in part, with Whitehead's definition of PL. This study concludes that for PE to be considered 'high quality' it should actively aim to prepare children to participate in lifelong physical activity (LLPA) by focusing on skills and attitudes to be used outside limited curriculum time. Further considerations relate to teacher education with a focus on generic skills and strategies fundamental to learning in PE, rather than activity specific content.
Introduction
The research question appeared in a 2001 paper by Whitehead, as part of a series of questions opening the debate about the concept. With the introduction of a national target relating to high quality PE, discussion within the profession has focused on how will we manage the time allocation (2002 DfES/DCMS commitment to two hours of high quality PE and school sport for all children in and outside curriculum time) and how we make it 'high quality' and how to recognise this. The QCA has investigated and produced guidelines for teachers to aid in this task (www.qca.org.uk/pess). This paper looks at how the concept of Physical Literacy (PL) can also be used in a practical PE setting to promote, create and recognise high quality Physical Education.
Physical Education - current thinking
In her 2001 paper, Whitehead asked 'Is there a core goal of PE beyond, or fundamental to, specific proficiency in a number of different named activities?'
This is a pertinent question in schools today, particularly in relation to the claims we make about PE. The debate regarding the 're-branding' of Physical Education as 'PE and School Sport' within government rhetoric, has led to a thought that, at least from the government standpoint, sports promotion is the key to Physical Education.
Kay (2003) takes the PE/sport debate further as does Lee (2004) categorising PE as emphasising 'learning in a physical context, the purpose of which is to develop knowledge, skills understanding and to promote physical development. Sport, on the other hand, is a range of physical activities where emphasis is on participation and competition'. This leads to the need to inquire as to the ultimate goal of school PE. There is also an interesting summary of research in Wright's (2004) paper investigating the value of happiness in primary school PE (p.151)
Current research (Fairclough, 2002, Green, 2004) promotes LLPA participation as the key outcome for Physical Education, understandably, particularly in light of evidence relating to childhood obesity and adult activity levels.
Green (2004) goes further to suggest that we cannot simply assume from the fact that young people may be physically active currently that they will remain so in years to come and that it is not the sheer amount of activity undertaken when young that appears to influence later adherence to sport and physical activity so much as a range of, or number of different, activities engaged in.
An increased time allocation in PE is not an automatic precursor to 'high quality' but the content of what is experienced is more important. This is further supported by Armstrong (2002, in Green, 2004) 'Nor do teachers need to focus their attention on the levels of activity youngsters attain; curriculum content and enjoyment rather than the level of activity achieved in PE lessons themselves are the most influential factors in developing positive or negative attitudes towards physical education'.
National Curriculum PE, in theory, encourages the processes involved in learning knowledge, skills and understanding relating to a 'breadth of study areas'. How this is interpreted by the 'stakeholders' in education (parents, teachers, governors, sports associations, the media and children) is a different matter. Many of these stakeholders are looking for an end state, proficiency in certain areas (traditionally team sports). These expectations are formulated from previous, personal experiences of PE and sport, and are not necessarily based on what is most important for children's physical development. For LLPA to be promoted knowledge, skills and understanding must be supported by a positive attitude towards physical activity.
High quality PE
QCA investigations into high quality PE and School Sport are welcomed as they do not just focus on children being good at specific sports. They acknowledge and promote the wider notion of PE contributing to school improvement and how positive attitudes towards physical activity can be promoted or at least seen as a high quality outcome.
In relation to PL, the most interesting of these 'outcomes' reads as follows:
'children who know how to use their skills intelligently and act independently; have greater physical competence and self-confidence and are keen to take up a healthy, active lifestyle.' QCA (2002)
Physical Literacy
A preliminary working definition of a physically literate individual as being able to: 'move with poise, economy and confidence in a wide variety of physically challenging situations. Furthermore the individual is perceptive in 'reading' all aspects of the physical environment, anticipating movement needs or possibilities and responding appropriately to these, with intelligence and imagination' (Whitehead, 2001) seems to parallel the QCA outcome.
Whitehead discusses the concept of Physical Literacy with authority and enthusiasm (Whitehead, 2001, 2004, www.physical-literacy.org.uk) providing a challenging academic debate which will continue to advance our understanding of this philosophy. For the nature of this paper, a basic outline is offered:
PL promotes the idea that each individual has their own potential physical ability and PE should be focusing on providing opportunities and learning experiences for individuals to discover their own physical potential. Whitehead also acknowledges the role attitude has to play, by advocating motivation to be physically active (to one's own physicality), as a key part of any approach to the teaching of Physical Education/Literacy.
Maude (2001) likens PL to Gardner's (1993) 'bodily kinaesthetic intelligence; the ability to use one's body in highly differentiated and skilled ways, for expressive as well as goal-directed purposes'. She then further strengthens the position of PL as a holistic approach by demonstrating that physical learners exhibit and develop all of Gardner's other multiple intelligences.
Essentially, to become Physically Literate, a child needs to be able to perform basic movement competencies (within their own physical capacity), apply these in a variety of situations and activities, understand how they can learn further, independently and have the internal motivation to do so.
This research outlines how PE provision based on the concept of PL leads to children learning the skills, attitudes and confidence to participate in LLPA, a key goal of high quality PE.
Case Studies
The initial research took place as part of a DfES Best Practice Research scholarship (2001-3). Interviews and discussions with staff involved in the provision of PE took place alongside interviews and practical teaching with a focus group of children, within a rigorous evaluation cycle. The early research took place in a Lower school (190 children aged 4-9).
Key outcomes identified included preparing children to know how to improve their performance and articulate their understanding. The teaching and learning of key movement concepts combined with the life skills of observation, evaluation and language development were identified as important in the promotion of LLPA.
A programme was developed from the motor development work of Gallahue & Ozmun (1995), with key skills (travelling, manipulative and stability) and outcomes identified and developed from a combination of research sources (Colvin et al. 2000; State of Victoria, 1996 and Hunt, 2002). Focus was placed on motor skills and application of these across activity contexts, rather than acquisition of activity specific skills. Basic understanding of the child's own body and its role in space, time and direction were developed.
Teachers involved supported three key guides to high quality PE; encompassing knowledge and understanding of PE fundamentals, teaching approaches and, most importantly, attitude towards the learning and learner. The whole team of teachers perceived that they had improved in these areas over the research period.
Learners within the project demonstrated indicators of great improvement in the use of language, observation and evaluation; becoming more responsible for their own learning; as well as improvement in, and more awareness about, basic skills.
More recent in-school research (220 children aged 7-11) has encompassed investigations into breadth of opportunities, partnerships, leadership, attitudes and 'stakeholder' perceptions of PE.
Recently, similar approaches focusing on areas key to the promotion of PL (fundamental skills, language, observation and evaluation analysis) have been produced.
Basic Moves (Jess, Dewar & Fraser, 2004) was developed in the light of the belief that 'there is little evidence of programmes emerging that concentrate on the development of foundation (for the future) in a detailed and sustainable manner.'
Developing children's basic movement competence as the foundation for a lifetime of physical activity cannot be left to chance and must become the focus of children's programmes in the future (Jess & Collins, 2003)
Basic Moves focuses on acquiring travelling, object control and balance skills and adding creativity and adaptability by applying movement concepts.
Observing Children Moving (OCM) (PEA UK, 2003) a CD Rom project designed to support all practitioners who work with children aged 3-7 years. The purpose of the project is to develop effective movement observation and analysis techniques in order to enhance the quality of children's movement experiences and thus their movement development (Maude & Whitehead, 2003)
The quality of these programmes will be internally and externally validated, but the fact that programmes are being developed that will support a PL approach to PE is encouraging.
How does the concept of PL affect what is the practice of PE?
Government evaluations of primary PE and the School Sports Co-ordinator programme seem positive, but this is related to the PE and School Sport criteria.
The view from primary schools is that the number of extra-curricular sports clubs is increasing, links to local sports clubs are being developed and inter-school competition is seeing a revival, but curricular PE is not getting a huge focus. Much of the training opportunities offered rely on sports backed funding, therefore have a sports specific focus.
If we take PL as promoting fulfilment of personal bodily potential, fostering of positive attitudes towards physical activity and having skills and understanding to progress independently, can we say that our current practice provides opportunities to achieve this? Does current practice offer the opportunities and learning experiences for all children to acquire skills that are developmentally appropriate to them as individuals?
The development of motor skills and physical fitness and knowledge must begin in the earliest years of primary school. During these years children are physically and intellectually capable of benefiting from instruction in physical education and are highly motivated and enthusiastic about learning. Children who do not master these fundamental movement skills are less able and often less willing to persist with the difficult task of learning more complex motor skills, and will avoid activities which expose them to 'public failure' (State of Victoria, 1996)
Does our current practice, through a combination of factors; traditional team games-focused curriculum, current initiatives surrounding PE and School Sport, funding through sports agencies, media coverage of sports and activity; focus too heavily on elitism rather than self-improvement?
Schools are becoming more effective at promoting the health benefits of physical activity and the importance of a healthy lifestyle (National Healthy Schools standards DfEE, 1999) PE has a large part to play in achieving this. As Gallahue (1995) reminds us: if the task (becoming healthy) is viewed as important, then competence in executing the task (success) will have an impact on self-esteem.
We therefore have a duty, to offer learning opportunities that will prepare children to succeed in this area - otherwise we are preparing children to fail at something they attach importance to, lowering self-esteem, switching them off from physical activity.
In answer to the research question - it is proposed that the concept of Physical Literacy shows us what we hope we are achieving.
How does the concept of PL affect what might be the practice of PE?
Perhaps as an interesting starting point to what affect Physical Literacy might have on today and tomorrows' PE practice; a comparison of PE from 1968:
"The general aims of PE do not change fundamentally over the years…the development of the physical ability of each child in as wide a variety of recreational, athletic and gymnastics activities as possible, so that the child not only learns to appreciate the sheer joy of physical fitness and well-being, but acquires a desire for participation in healthy physical activity. Other aims of PE including: to increase the physical skill of each child, developing versatility, adaptability and the ability to cope with various tasks and situations; to enable each child, through physical activity, to experience a sense of achievement as frequently as possible; to exercise the natural learning process of enquiry and discovery through creative and imaginative physical activity." (Bilbrough & Jones)
If we take the ultimate goal of PE to be that all children have the skills and attitudes to enjoy and participate in lifelong physical activity - what can the concept of PL offer children? Our role in primary PE is to prepare the basic building blocks, to foster the positive attitudes, to encourage independence, variety in learning and participation.
The impact skill acquisition has on self-esteem is well established. Children working with a more skilful and knowledgeable base of movement can raise standards in 'sport', participation rates and healthy lifestyles. Gallahue (1995) writes that improvement of motor development and PE will come if children become involved in the process of learning instead of solely concerned with the product.
Individuals who are more aware of how to improve, and more able to explain how they can improve, can lead to an independence that can be transferred outside curriculum time; onto the playground, the parks, the back gardens. Being involved in this process can lead to leadership experiences and further socialisation into other roles within physical activity and sport.
An increased focus on developing the language, observation and evaluation skills in young children can increase their understanding of their own and others' movements.
Maude (2001) writes that 'once children can bring together relevant verbs, or action words, with the related body part or parts, they can begin to create a coherent language of movement…they become articulate in the movement vocabulary of PE as well as articulate in using the language of physical education to communicate his/her knowledge.'
What impact can the concept of Physical Literacy have on teacher education?
Use of such programmes as OCM and Basic Moves within Initial Teacher Training and on going CPD should provide primary teachers with a foundation about how to facilitate children becoming more physically literate. Increasing the focus on the teaching of language, observation and evaluation skills will provide children with the skills to self-improve. Once children have the fundamental movement skills and the positive attitudes towards physically activity, then they need to develop confidence and understanding in applying those skills and attitudes to as wide an activity repertoire as possible.
Conclusions
Opportunities to develop the profile and standing of Physical Education, a re-assertion of the key values of Physical Education as a subject (as seen in Kay, 2003) need to be organised now. Schools need to look at re-educating the perceptions of stakeholders. Interpretations of the National Curriculum need to focus more on what children need, to be set firmly on the path to lifelong physical activity, with the knowledge, skills, understanding and attitudes that will help them to achieve their own physical potential.
The context of this research has been within primary Physical Education which can be interpreted as the first (and fundamental) stages of learning about our physical selves.
'Secondary' to this comes the developing, expanding and additional understanding of our own unique physical potential, and how we can utilise this throughout our lifetime experience of physical activity.
Physical Literacy can provide a picture of what we as Physical Educationalists should be aiming for, as both process and outcome.
References
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Bilbrough, A, & Jones, P. (1968) Physical Education in the Primary School. University of London Press
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